Research proposal Essay

Roselle Jardin Ranario, DPA Research Adviser October 2013 ACKNOWLEDGMENT Thinking that this was impossible to achieve made us realize that everything would be possible especially with enough help and support from people around us. Not only motivating us but also helped us to pursue our goal. They gave us the courage to do good and guided all throughout. It is our pleasure to thank those who made this possible. To our Heavenly Father, for His divine providence and for giving us enough strength. To our families, for their moral and financial support especially during difficult times. To our very supportive adviser, Dr. Roselle Jardin-Ronario, DPA for giving us words of wisdom and guiding us all throughout. Thank you also for the patience and encouragements. TABLE OF CONTENTS TitlePage Number INTRODUCTION Rationale4 Theoretical Background7 Statement of the Problem13 Significance of the Study14 RELATED LITERATURE15 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY22 Research Design Research Environment Research Respondents Research Instrument Selected based on the performance Data Gathering Procedures23 Treatment of Data DEFINITION OF TERMS24 BIBLIOGRAPHY25 APPENDICES28 CURRICULUM VITAE29 Introduction Rationale The love and eagerness to know is the beginning of a beautiful journey towards learning. The moment we want to know about any concept, we tend to  develop attachment towards it. By then, we would like to learn more about the concept and would do anything to know better. Statistically, Mathematics has been the academic subject that has presented the greatest challenge to many students. Many researchers suggest that difficulties in learning mathematics begin as early as pre-school. They argue that inadequate knowledge and ineffective teaching by some teachers plant the seed for future complications in the mathematics classroom. In an effort to address the challenge of poor academic performance in math, there is an abundant amount of literature and research on improvement in methods of math instruction. Since then, teachers are trying to utilize their creativity and initiative to grasp more strategies on how to develop the mathematical ability of learners effectively. The students start to dislike math because they do not understand. It builds up each grade level to the point that they hate it because they have difficulty in learning. The learners were not able to master the competency that they need to master each grade level. And because of this, learners develop attitude and anxiety towards math. Computer assisted instruction being used by many Asian countries in school especially in teaching math subject is of great help for both teachers and students. This can help learners understand well the concept of numbers, symbols, and objects through clear visual, accurate, and fast learning process and develop more of their mathematical ability. Through this, learners are now more confident to learn math and learning is more effective when teaching-learning method is incorporated with both verbal and visual entity with the use of computer assisted instruction. This concern draws an interest to the researchers to know the Asian people’s math attitudes and anxieties in computer assisted instructions. The researchers attempt to help the learners to appreciate math more and with it, they will be able to start learning math better. In the long run, the learners will be able to develop their mathematical ability and be able to make use of it on their future chosen field. With the findings, the  researchers may also be able to relate it to the math learners since the researchers themselves are also a math instructor in one of the schools in Asia. The researchers may come up with effective strategies in the teaching-learning environment with the learners to improve their math performance. Theoretical Background This study is anchored by these two theories; Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist Theory. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is composed of four processes of goal realization: self-observation, self-evaluation, self-reaction and self-efficacy. These components are interrelated, each having an effect on motivation and goal attainment (Redmond, 2010). Self-observation–Observing oneself can inform and motivate. It can be used to assess one’s progress toward goal attainment as well as motivate behavioral changes. There are two important factors with regards to self-observation: regularity and proximity. Regularity means the behavior should be continually observed, whereas proximity means the behavior should be observed while it occurs, or shortly after. Alone, self-observation is insufficient because motivation depends on one’s expectations of outcomes and efficacy (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Self-evaluation– Self-evaluation compares an individual’s current performance with a desired performance or goal. It is affected by the standards set and the importance of the goals. Goals must be specific and important; therefore, goals such as, â€Å"do your best† are vague and will not motivate. Schunk and Zimmerman (1994) state that â€Å"specific goals specify the amount of effort required for success and boost self-efficacy because progress is easy to gauge.† If one has little regard for his goal he will not evaluate performance. There are two types of self-evaluation standards: absolute and normative. For example, a grading scale would be an example of a fixed or absolute standard. A social comparison such as evaluating one’s behavior or performance against other individuals is an example of a normative standard  (Zimmerman &Schunk, 2001). People gain satisfaction when they achieve goals that they value. When individuals achieve these valued goals, they are more likely to continue to exert a high level of effort, since sub-standard performance will no longer provide satisfaction (Bandura, 1989). Self-reaction– Reactions to one’s performance can be motivating. If the progress made is deemed acceptable, then one will have a feeling of self-efficacy with regard to continuing, and will be motivated towards the achievement of their goal. A negative self-evaluation might also be motivating in that one may desire to work harder provided that they consider the goal to be valuable. Self-reaction also allows a person to re-evaluate their goals in conjunction with their attainments (Bandura, 1989). If a person has achieved a goal, they are likely to re-evaluate and raise the standard (goal); whereas, if a person has not achieved the goal, they are likely to re-evaluate and lower the standard (goal) to an achievable goal. Self-efficacy– One’s belief in the likelihood of goal completion can be motivating in itself (Van der Bijl&Shortridge-Baggett, 2002). â€Å"Self-efficacy refers to people’s judgements about their capability to perform particular tasks. Task-related self-efficacy increases the effort and persistence towards challenging tasks; therefore, increasing the likelihood that they will be completed† (Barling & Beattie, 1983, as cited in Axtell & Parker, 2003, p. 114). Vygotsky (as cited by Whitcomb, 2002) stresses that cognitive development is a social activity. â€Å"Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).† Adolescents develop their own thoughts and attitudes through social interaction and communication with peers and other members of society. (Rogoff, et al, 2007). They can also learn by observing the activities and interactions of others in a social setting. Adolescent students must have access to a more knowledgeable person or persons with whom they can communicate and interact socially. Realizing this will help keep teachers aware of just how meaningful their interactions and attitudes  are to a student, and how what they say and do can influence a student. Depending on the social context of the classroom, a student may benefit from being able to interact freely and socially with other students as they learn. The teacher may be socially less approachable in the classroom context. A ten year study at Harvard (Crouch, & Mazur, 2001) showed that most students learn more from group learning activities than they do studying alone or listening to the teacher dispense information. When students are required to explain their ideas to their peers in a dialogue, rather than recite whatever â€Å"correct† explanation the teacher has told them, they more fully engage their minds, using their own cultural tools and opening their own personal beliefs to eventual modification. Vygotsky’s important notion state that students learn most effectively when they are given tasks which are a little too difficult for an individual to accomplish alone but can be mastered through social cooperation, is called teaching in the students’ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). What he means is that if the lessons and tasks given to a student are not close enough â€Å"proximal† to what the student finds challenging, then the student will not develop. Trivial exercises result in mostly boredom and little to no cognitive development. On the other end of the spectrum, if a task is too difficult for students, even when they can work together, then they will simply fail at it and also achieve little development. So there is an optimal zone, or â€Å"magic middle†, where students are challenged, but can cooperate socially to increase their mastery of the task. Such a task is said to be within the ZPD. The concept of a ZPD can also be applied to the way adolescents think and develop. Most adolescents want to develop into adults and join adult society, perhaps to be free from their diminished status below the adults within society, particularly in our culture. If we consider that operating within the ZPD is the most efficient way to develop the cognitive and social functions of an adult, then it is only natural that adolescents tend to form groups of their peers and then attempt to understand and imitate adult social and cultural behaviors. The ZPD is very strongly evidenced by classroom studies. A study at the University of Illinois (Wenning, & Wenning, 2006) on the implementation of new inquiry-based lab activities, which are more challenging and more work for  both students and instructors, found that these new and difficult activities must be introduced gradually. The research group achieved great success when they began the course with lab activities that were the easiest to understand within the pre-existing scaffolding (in this case, their educational background) and within the students’ ZPD. As the course progressed, the lab activities became increasingly complex, but the students continued to succeed and increased their skills and understanding. By working within their ZPD, they were able to shift it ever higher and achieve mastery, just as Vygotsky would have predicted. When I become a physics teacher, I know I will have to use this same approach: First I will have to investigate and identify my students’ ZPD, as they did in the Illinois study.(Wenning, & Wenning, 2006). Statement of the Problem This study aims to examine the relationship of Math attitude and anxiety of students in computer assisted instruction across Asian countries. Specifically, this study aims to know the following: 1. What is the Math attitude of the learners across Asian countries? 2. What are the levels of Math anxiety of the learners across Asian countries? 3. What are the types of computer assisted instruction in Math across Asian countries? 4. What are the effects of computer assisted instruction in Math attitude of the learners? 5. What are the effects of computer assisted instruction to the levels of Math anxiety of learners? Significance of the Study The results of this research study categorically benefited from many sectors of the educational institutions by providing information on the results of the performance in terms of students’ language achievement that will enable the teachers to know the students’ areas of difficulty and strength, thereby guiding them in reconstructing their program of teaching to suit their needs. Among the persons who will be directly or indirectly benefited are the following: To the principal concerned, the results of this research  study may give her insights which would encourage her to plan projects designed to improve the quality of language teaching in the public school like Minglanilla National Science High School as the lead school of all public secondary schools in the Municipality of Minglanilla, Cebu Province. The district coordinator in English of the Municipality of Minglanilla as a researcher will benefit from the experimental study for future references. He has been pro vided with the data and information necessary for his experimental analysis utilizing the macro-skills’ learning performance intended for High School students, particularly in science classes. This will help the English teachers in Science High School realize in order for them to understand the new approaches in teaching and to be able to use the techniques and procedures effectively. Thus, it is necessary to bring their training up-to-date. They should as well encourage independent thinking and free communication of notions among the students concerned using the tools of expressions acquired in English class because this is the eventual aim of language teaching. To the first year teachers assigned to teach pilot classes as formative years in first year, it may enable them to realize that they should understand evaluation and procedures with emphasis on experimental viewpoints and learning approaches not only them as teachers but also their students so they can integrate with their own teaching and testing. More significantly, they will realize that in fairness to their students, they should test what they really teach. The secondary freshmen as student entrants of Minglanilla National Science High School will further ameliorate their savvy based on the structured lessons and differ mentally according to the departmentalized lessons, advanced lessons presented, and general learning performance based also on their intellectual aspects of learning. It will enable the students in general to grasp at the innovative teaching-learning approaches shared with them not only by the teachers but also by the freshmen pilot classes in terms of the four (4) areas of English language teaching, namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing as sequenced in the lessons. Finally, the learning institution should initiate and institute a re-training program for the students as the training ground for them to go for the next higher level. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The learning of mathematics is affected by the confidence of learners in their mathematical abilitiesand the attitudes, beliefs, and feelings they harbour towards mathematics (Coben, 2003 as cited by Kerlinger 2004). Their conceptions of the subject and their perceptions of themselves and of their relationship to mathematics lie at the heart of their mathematics learning behaviour (Philippou & Christou, 1998). For fear of embarrassment, many adults go to great lengths to avoid admitting that they experience reading difficulties, yet it appears to be normal, even acceptable, in modern life to readily admit to a dislike and misunderstanding of mathematics. Sewell (1981) suggested that at least half the population, including many with high mathematical qualifications, had negative attitudes to mathematics, ranging from lack of confidence to anxiety and even fear. According to Bandura’s sociocognitive theory, student’s motivation is a construct that is built out of individual learning activities and experiences, and it varies from one situation or context to another as cited by Pantzaira & Philippou, 2007. Schereiber (2000) said that those who have positive attitudes towards Mathematics have better performance in Mathematics. Latterell (2008) writes in her book about the â€Å"Math Wars† that â€Å"Japanese people believe in gambae. Gambae means that one is successful if one works hard enough to be successful. One’s attitude and behavior must match the belief that hard work leads to success† (p. 126). Considering the results of the TIMSS, American students are no competition for Japanese students in mathematics. Japanese and other Asian students consistently outperform American students in mathematics (Latterell, 2008) and innumeracy. â€Å"Those with low mathematical abilities are likely to have more negative attitudes toward the subject and less inclination to make the effort to improve their mathematical abilities† (p. 212). Hammerman and Goldberg (2003) also state that to become successful in mathematics requires a positive attitude and belief in one’s ability to succeed. The factors affecting mathematics anxiety were mathematics achievement,  attitude toward mathematics, trait anxiety, and debilitating anxiety.^ Mathematics attitude, mathematics achievement, field indepedence, and the anxiety measures were found to be significant predictors of level of mathematics anxiety. Math anxiety is a real problem facing students, teachers, and parents. Teachers and parents that are afraid of mathematics pass that on to their students and children (Furner & Duffy, 2002). Students who have math anxiety face real and long-lasting consequences. Ashcraft and Kirk (2001) describe the common belief that because of â€Å"long-term avoidance of math, and their lesser mastery of the math that couldn’t be avoided, high-math-anxiety individuals are simply less competent at doing math† (p. 224). Extensive literature demonstrates that anxiety, stress, lack of confidence, and phobic reactions in the face of mathematical problems are exhibited in most modern cultures (Macrae, 2003), and math- anxiety is commonly characterized by feelings of tension, apprehension, or fear that impacts on mathematical performance (Ashcraft, 2002). It is associated with loss of self-esteem in confronting a mathematical situation (Acelajado, 2004), negative reactions to mathematical concepts and evaluation procedures, and with many constructs including working memory, age, gender, self-efficacy, and mathematics attitudes (Cates & Rhymer, 2003). Students faced with the dual burdens of intractable content and math-anxiety a posteriori tend to have weak or negative mathematics self-efficacy beliefs. Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy beliefs as â€Å"people’s judgements of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances† as cited by Chiu 2009. Self-efficacy beliefs are a better predictor of success than an inventory of skills or prior achievements, and relationships have been found between self-efficacy for solving mathematics problems and mathanxiety, mathematics attitudes, general mental ability, mathematics self-concept, and mathematics experience (Finney & Schraw, 2003). Yà ¼ksel-Åžahin (2008) said that Mathematics anxiety has to do with a sense of discomfort while required to work on mathematical problems (Hadfield &  Trujillo, 1999; Ma, 2003). Low grades or failure in mathematics could also lead to mathematics anxiety or exasperate students’ existing levels of anxiety for mathematics (Ma & Xu, 2004; Norwood, 1994; Reynolds, 2001; Satake & Amato, 1995; Townsend, Moore, Tuck, & Wilton, 1998). Failure in mathematics, fear and anxiety about it could cause extreme feelings of dislike about mathematics. Indeed, Hopko et.al. (2003) observed that persons with mathematics anxiety make more mistakes in dealing with mathematics problems. Poor performance in mathematics has been linked to an increase in mathematics anxiety (Furner & Duffy, 2002; Hopko et.al., 2003). Megan R. Smith (2004) said that Math anxiety is a real problem facing students and teachers today. The mathematics teacher especially needs to understand the causes and effects of math anxiety as well as ways to help students overcome it. There are many symptoms of math anxiety including an unwillingness to attempt mathematics problems, a fear of taking advanced mathematics classes, and being unusually nervous when in mathematics class. Math anxiety hinders students’ working memory (Perina, 2002). It occurs at different ages in different people for different reasons. The main cause of math anxiety is the teacher himself It has been shown that students tend to internalize their instructor’s interest in and enthusiasm for teaching math (Jackson and Leffingwell, 1999). It is imperative when teaching mathematics that the teacher progresses from simple problems to complex ones (Schwartz, 2000). The students also need to have support systems in mathematics, whether this comes from their parents at home or with other students at school (Schwartz, 2000). The greatest prevention of math anxiety is the teacher himself. As stated before, the teacher needs to have a positive attitude when in class and needs to be willing to help students. The teacher must believe in the students even when they do not believe in themselves. Math anxiety is a real problem facing students, teachers, and parents. Teachers and parents that are afraid of mathematics pass that on to their students and children (Furner & Duffy, 2002). Students who have math anxiety  face real and long-lasting consequences. Ashcraft and Kirk (2001) describe the common belief that because of â€Å"long-term avoidance of math, and their lesser mastery of the math that couldn’t be avoided, high-math-anxiety individuals are simply less competent at doing math† (p. 224). Indeed, Hopko et.al. (2003) observed that persons with mathematics anxiety make more mistakes in dealing with mathematics problems. Such mistakes lead to lower grades in mathematics which in turn increases anxiety about math. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) is a narrower term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities. Computer based tools and applications are used to assist the teacher or school administrator in the management of the learner and instructional process. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with programmed instructional materials. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place. Computer – based instruction is a remediation or instruction presented on a computer according to the American Institute of Research, 2004. Johnson (2000) said that the computer opens a wide range of resources. When correctly used, they give learners a different level of experience and bring new style and height of analysis in the classroom. In the Philippines, the Department of Education is in the final stage of completing the five – year Information and Communication Technology for Education Strategies Plan as Lapus (2008) puts it. Computer – based instruction is a remediation or instruction presented on a computer, the American Institute of Research (2004) reiterated. CAI is also known as Computer Assisted Instruction. Examples of CAI applications include guided drill and practice exercises, computer visualization of complex objects, and computer-facilitated communication between learners and teachers. CAI can dramatically increase a learner’s  access to information. The program can adapt to the abilities and preferences of the individual student and increase the amount of personalized instruction a student receives. Many students benefit from the immediate responsiveness of computer interactions and appreciate the self-paced and private learning environment. Moreover, computer-learning experiences often engage the interest of students motivate them to learn and increase independence and personal responsibility for education (Microsoft Encarta, 2008 as cited by Vibar et. Al, 2010). As mentioned by Hergenhahn and Olson (1997) Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) motivates students to learn in ways that traditional instruction may not by providing immediate feedback, personal attention, exciting visual displays, and a game-like atmosphere. In fact, students are often so motivated by CAI that depriving them of their turn with the computer acts as punishment, and giving them additional time with the computer that acts as re-enforcement. Research Methodology Research Design This study will employ quantitative approach of data analysis and presentation. It utilizes descriptive correlation method of deriving data from 4 different Asian countries namely: Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Philippines. Research Respondents The respondents of the study will be selected using data mining technique. The 4 Southeast Asian countries including Philippines are among the many that joined the Trends In Mathematics and Science Survey and based on the records, among the Southeast Asian countries, only four joined namely, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Philippines based on the 2003 TIMSS records. Research Environment The research will be conducted within the Four Southeast Asian Countries namely: Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Philippines. Research Instrument For the empirical phase of the study, the researchers will make use of the record sheet based from the Trends In Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS 2003). Research Procedures Gathering of Data Academic performance will be downloaded from Trends In Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS 2003). Through data mining technique, fou different South East Asian countries will be selected based on their performance in Math. Treatment of Data The cluster sampling will be utilized to identify the four South East Asian Countries and Pearson r correlation coefficient will help determine the relationship between Math anxiety and Math Attitude. DEFINITION OF TERMS For a better and clearer understanding of this study, the following terms are operationally defined in the context of this investigation. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) refers to the method of teaching that uses computers to interact with students in the teaching-learning process. Math Anxiety refers to the feeling of tension or fear in Math. Math Attitude refers to the behavior towards Math TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE STUDY (TIMSS) international assessment of the mathematics and science knowledge of students from different grade levels across countries. DATA MINING TECHNIQUE getting information from a data set and makes it understandable for further use. BIBLIOGRAPHY Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer Instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of Physics, 69(9), 970-977. (Peer Instruction and Inquiry)doi:10.1119/1.1374249 Daniels, H. (2007). Pedagogy. In H. Daniels, J. Wertsch, & M. Cole (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Vygotsky. New York: Cambridge University Press. Dilber, R., Karaman, I., & Duzgun, B. (2009). High school students’ understanding of projectile motion concepts. Educational Research and Evaluation, 15(3), 203-222. Ibrahim, B., Buffler, A., & Lubben, F. (2009). Profiles of Freshman Physics Students’ Views on the Nature of Science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46(3), 248–264. Mason, A., & Singh, C. (2010). Helping students learn effective problem solving strategies by reflecting with peers. American Journal of Physics, 78(7), 748-754. Rogoff, B., Moore, L., Najafi, B., Dexter, A., Correa-Chavez, M., & Solis J. (2007). Children’s development of culture repertoires through participation in everyday routines and practices. In J. E. Grusec & P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of socialization. New York: Guilford. Pachler, Norbert, Center of Excellence for Work-based Learning for Education Professionals, Dept. of learning, Curriculum & Communication, Institute of Education, University of London. 2004. Using fuzzy statistics to determine Mathematics Attitude and Anxiety, Necla Turanli (2013), Middle East Journal of Scientific Research 13 (4): 568-572, IDOSCI Publications. Megan R. Smith. (2004). Math Anxiety: Causes, Effects, and Preventative Measures. Internet Sources glwhitcomb.iweb.bsu.edu Tago et al, Mobile Learning, Challenges and Potentials. www.inderscience.comfilter.php http://www.edpubs.org. PatrickGonzales (2004). Highlights from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science study (TIMSS) 2003. Chris.klinger@flinders.edu.au http://www.icmeorganizers.dk/tsg15/ APPENDIX E BUDGET SUMMARY 1. Supplies: Drawing book P 46.00 Clear FolderP 16.00 Cost of Services: a. Print out P 30.00 Total P 76.00 Prepared by: ARMESTIDES M. BARGAYO VI RESEARCH TEAM TREASURER Curriculum Vitae PERSONAL DATA Name:Odessa M. Bonjoc – Avenido Address:Luyang, Carmen, Cebu Birthday:November 15, 1983 Civil Status:Married Sex:Female Age:29 Spouse:Ariel B. Avenido EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND Elementary: Luyang Elementary School Year Graduated: 1996 Secondary: Cebu Academy Year Graduated: 2000 Tertiary: University of the Visayas – Main Campus Year Graduated: 2004 Course: Bachelor in Elementary Education – Area in Mathematics Graduate Studies: Cebu Normal University Graduated: Present Course: Master of Arts in Education – Major in ELT Employment Record: Position: Teacher 2 Designation:ICT Teacher School: Luyang Elementary School – DepEd Province PERSONAL DATA Name: Armestides M. Bargayo VI Address: Lower Pakigne, Minglanilla, Cebu Birthday: October 22, 1981 Civil Status: Single Sex: Male Age: 31 years old EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND Elementary: Minglanilla Central School Year Graduated: 1994 High School: Immaculate Heart of Mary Academy Year Graduated: 1998 College: University of San Carlos Year Graduated: 2002 Course: Bachelor in Secondary Education major in Math Graduate Studies: Cebu Normal University Year Graduated: Present Course: Master of Arts in Education major in Math Employment Record: Position: Math Teacher School: University of Cebu – Main Campus PERSONAL DATA Name: Jun Antoinette Z. Navaja Address: 4- E Gorordo Avenue, Kamputhaw, Cebu City Birthday: January 27, 1988 Civil Status: Single Sex: Female Age: 25 years old EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND Elementary: Colegio de la Inmaculada Concepcion Year Graduated: 2001 High School: Colegio de la Inmaculada Concepcion Year Graduated: 2005 College: University of San Carlos Year Graduated: 2009 Course: Bachelor of Education major in Special Education Graduate Studies: Cebu Normal University Year Graduated: Present Course: Master of Arts in Education major Special Education- Mental Retardation Employment Record: Position: Substitute Teacher School: Barrio Luz Elementary School, DepEd Cebu PERSONAL DATA Name: Angelie Lopez Senarosa Address: Catmaran, Basak, Compostela, Cebu Birthday: April 25, 1982 Civil Status:Single Sex: Female Age: 31 years old EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND Elementary: Panangban Elementary School Year Graduated: 2000 High School: Compostela National High School Year Graduated: 2003 College: Cebu Normal University Year Graduated: 2007 Course: Bachelor in Secondary Education major in Math Graduate Studies: Cebu Normal University Year Graduated: Present Course: Master of Arts in Education major in Math Employment Record: Position: Math Teacher School: Mulao National High School, DepEd Cebu

A systems look at a construction problem

System theory, in general, is a field of study involving complex interactions between different groups or objects that work together to achieve a specific result. (O’Connor & McDermott 1997:11)In applications for management and organizations, systems theory involves the efficient communications of information. There are many different applied approaches such as the soft systems approach as well as the hard systems approach. This paper looks into the application of both approaches in a construction project.The Pre-contract SituationThe situation I will be discussing is the design of a world standard university to be provided through Descon Construction Company. The contractor (Descon) was selected after the due process, as listed out below:1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Invitation by the university to Descon to bid for the contract2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Identification by the university of suitable construction companies with the capability of carrying out the work from the total list o f bidders3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Recommendation of Descon to the university4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Descon tenders a copy of project management works and provides for complete audibility of the process5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Assessment of Descon by the university6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The university tenders Descon with a copy of their evaluation and review of the construction company7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Submission of contract recommendations by Descon to the university8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Estimation by both parties of project cost, functionality, quality and time9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reporting by Descon and the university of their individual assessments of the project.10.   Compromise is reached by both parties and a final project plan is developed11.   Initiation by both parties of services and agreements stipulated within the contractThe situation that arose after the university building committee’s appointment of Descon as preferred bidder, and as the parties moved in to the next stage of detailed negotiation of the services (including buildings) to be provided, was what prompted this paper. During any contract or agreement, people enter into relationships.Such relationships will result in an outcome which, in this case, was the relationship between the University and Descon, the preferred bidder. The preferred bidder will ensure that the buildings are up to standard. Descon will also be responsible for any breach of contract and any poor services provided. The university building committee, on the other hand, will pay the stipulated amount as laid down in the Contract deedMatters arisingNo doubt numerous problems will arise in any given building contract situation, and this particular situation is no different. There is the problem of expecting complaints from the client as a result of building or design specification. However, the design desired by the client can still be met as result of good managerial and interdepartmental functions within t he system or organization.It should be understood that the two organizations are separate, large systems with different interacting units that make up the whole, and as such, room is made for adjustments in order to achieve the set objectives. These organizations are a collection of separate decision making systems, each with their own identity, purpose, understanding of the environment, beliefs and values based on which their decisions are made.Figure 1 below shows the structure of relationship between the two parties, the University and Descon, involved in the design project. This shows the clear distinction between the two groups as separate entities.

Leaders in Innovation Assessment Essay

As stated in the assessment instructions, in the field of organizational leadership, many models are used as a means of examining what qualities and skills make an effective leader. Although there is a variety of models I have decided to analyze the behavioural and the transformational theory models. Reviewing the resources recommended for discovery and delivery skills, I learned how those skills have a direct impact on an effective leader’s performance in innovation organization. The discovery skills are based on associating, questioning, observing, experimenting, and networking they are also referred as the DNA of innovation. Delivery skills also play in the innovation process with their four key skills which are analyzing, planning, detail-oriented implementing, and self-disciplined executing. In the body of this paper I will unfold my research on those skills and identify its correlation with innovation. I will also be assessing the strengths and weaknesses on my ability t o support innovation in an organization. Leadership Models Supporting Innovation Over the years, a number of leadership theories have been established including: trait, behavioural, contingency, and transformational theory. My analysis will be on behavioral and transformational. Behavioral Theories As described in Doyle and Smith (2001) early researchers ran out of steam in their search for traits, they turned to what leaders did and how they behaved, specially towards followers. They moved from leaders to leadership and this became the dominant way of approaching leadership within the organizations in the 1950s and early 1960s. Different patterns of behaviour  were grouped together and labeled as styles. This became a very popular activity within management training perhaps the best known being Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid (1964; 1978). Various schemes appeared, designed to diagnose and develop people’s style of working. Despite different names, the basic ideas were very similar. The four main styles that appear are: Concern for task. Here leaders emphasize the achievement of concrete objectives. Concern for people. In this style, leaders look upon their followers as people their needs, interests, problems, and development. Directive leadership. This styl e is characterized by leaders taking decisions for others and expecting followers or subordinates to follow instructions. Participative leadership. Here leaders try to share decision-making with others. The behavioral theory has many assumptions which conclude that leaders can be made rather than born. This theory has a direct approach with innovation in the organization. With the managements concern for their employees it gives everyone in the organization the motivation to innovate. Innovation is all about adaptability and with the behavioral theory leaders are made, which means that they can adapt to any situation that they are confronted with. The following grid model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in the early 1960s The grid clarifies the magnitude in which a leader focuses on these dimensions determining the leadership style that they relate to. Some leaders are more concerned with getting the tasks at hand completed successfully in a timely manner. Other leaders prefer creating solid interpersonal relationships with their employees, because by being an oriented leader the employee’s performance will be higher. For example, if you have a high concern for completing a task and achieving results with little concern for having a relationship with people, you would be an authority-obedience manager. Another example: if you have little concern to complete a task or interact with people, you would be an impoverished manager. Transformational Theory Transformational leaders are those leaders who transform followers personal  values and self-concepts, move them to higher levels of needs and aspirations (Jung, 2001), and raise the performance expectations of their followers (Bass, 1995). This leadership has four components; charismatic role modeling, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation. Using charisma, the leader instills admiration, respect, and loyalty, and emphasizes the importance of having a collective sense of mission. By individualized consideration, the leader builds a one-to-one relationship with his or her followers, and understands and considers their differing needs, skills, and aspirations. Thus, transformational leaders articulates an exciting vision of the future, shows the followers the ways to achieve the goals, and expresses his or her belief that they can do. (Bass, 1990) Incorporated by (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Damanpour, 1991) has been suggested that transformational leadership is an important source of organizational innovation, empirical studies have not examined the moderating role of this contextual factor while investigating the relationship between transformational leadership and innovation. In addition to external support for innovation, support within the organization, in terms of an innovation supporting climate and adequate resources allocated to innovation might also be an important contextual factor that plays a role in this relationship. Transformational leaders have been suggested to have an impact on innovation. Transformational leaders enhance innovation within the organizational context; in other words the tendency of organizations to innovate. According to (Elkins and Keller, 2003) transformational leaders use inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation which are critical for organizational innovation. They also promote creative ideas within their organizations and their behaviors. Blake , and Jane (n.d.). Discovery and Delivery Skills In recent studies it has been identified that the ability of a person’s creative thinking comes one-third from their genetics; and the other two-thirds of innovation skill set comes through learning (Dyer, Gregersen,  & Christensen, 2009, p. 63). To begin with, a person is given a skill set that they will analyze till understand, then practicing, experimenting, and lastly gaining confidence in one’s capacity to create. The following details will demonstrate by skills how innovative entrepreneurs acquire their innovation skills. The following five skills set that constitute the â€Å"innovators DNA†: associating, questioning, observing, networking, and experimenting. Discovery skill 1: Associating is the ability to successfully connect seemingly unrelated questions, problems, or ideas from different fields, is central to the innovator’s DNA. Discovery skill 2: Questioning the power of provocative questions. To question effectively, innovative entrepreneurs do the following: ask â€Å"why?† and â€Å"why not?† and â€Å"what if?† Discovery skill 3: Observing the behavior of potential customers. In observing others, they act like anthropologists and social scientists. Discovery skill 4: Experimenting, innovative entrepreneurs actively try out new ideas by creating prototypes and launching pilots. Discovery skill 5: Networking is devoting time and energy to finding and testing ideas through a network of diverse individuals gives innovators a radically different perspective. Delivery skills play in the innovation process, improving their discovery, and encouraging themselves and their organizations to take a long-term view. The delivery skills consist of four keys terms: analyzing, planning, detailed-oriented implementing, and self-disciplined executing. At times delivery skills are relatively more important during the maturity growth of a business. Analyzing: examine methodically and in detail the constitution or structure of something or information. Planning: the process of making plans for something. Detail-oriented implementing: capable of carrying out a given task with all details necessary to get the task well done and executed. Disciplined-executing: acting in accordance, and performing an act successfully. The synthesis of, discovery and delivery skills are critical for delivering results and translating an innovative idea into reality for organizations. According to Dyer, Gregersen, and Christensen, (2011) it is vital to understand that the skills critical to an organization’s success  vary systematically throughout the business life cycle. For example, in the start-up phase of an innovative venture, the founders are obviously more discovery-driven and entrepreneurial. Discovery skills are crucial early in the business life cycle because the company’s key task is to generate new ideas worth pursuing. Thus, discovery skills are highly valued at this stage and delivery skills are secondary. However, once innovative entrepreneurs come up with a promising new business idea and then shape that idea into a bona fide business opportunity, the company begins to grow and then must pay attention to building the processes necessary to scale the idea. Strengths and Weaknesses in Discovery & Delivery Skills Strengths Discovery Skills Weaknesses Associating: I’m always coming up with new ideas to improve things. Experimenting: Like with observing I also like to experiment, but I quickly become frustrated after getting something wrong after a couple of tries. I would like to give myself the ability to keep trying with a positive mind that I will get to the right solution. Questioning: When it comes to questioning I don’t have a mute button. I like to ask enough questions because it helps me come up with the best solution. Networking: I have no networking skills. I’ve had the opportunity to do this in my place of work, but I never take the time to do it. Observing: This skill is definitely one of my strongest. I observe everything that goes around me always finding a better way to solve an issue. StrengthsDelivery SkillsWeaknesses Planning: I enjoy planning, especially when the plan in process will be a success to an issue. Analyzing: I lose interest very easily when I have to sit down for a long period of time to analyze something. Detail-Oriented: When I’m given and assignment I make sure I executed just as it was asked. Discipline-executing: I always make sure I perform to the best of my ability as asked of me following all regulations and procedures to be successful. Having good associating, questioning, observing, planning, detail-oriented, and discipline-executing skills will not only be beneficial for me, but also  for the organization that I work for. Due to the fact that innovation is a critical aspect for organizations, senior executives are always seeking for candidates with these types of skills because it will contribute to their ability to innovate and be successful in the business with strategically ideas since executives don’t feel responsible for innovating. Unfortunately due to that fact; that my weaknesses with experimenting, networking, and analyzing will hinder my ability to support innovation in an organization at 100%. Although I’m not as concerned even though my weaknesses will delay any project I might be working on, but with trial in error I can convert those weaknesses into strengths. As stated in the innovators DNA, practice, practice, practice. Though innovative thinking may be innate to some, it can also be developed and strengthened through practice. Conclusion Through the models and detailed explanations we have learned how the behavioral and transformational theories are a big part of innovation and organizations. The roles of discovery and delivery skills are crucial in an organization to innovate with ideas, research, and these skills are a company’s success to innovate and succeed. I feel comfortable with my discovery and delivery skills, my role now are to practice and work on my weaknesses. A candidate with all the skills in place; is better than one with just a few. References Barnard, C. (1938), new definition of leadership. Retrieved from http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/leadership_theories.htm Bass, B. M. (1990). From Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision. Organizational Dynamics, 18(3): 19-32. Bass, B. M. (1995). Transformational Leadership. Journal of Management Inquiry, 4(3): 293 298. Behavioral Grid Retrieved from http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/classical-leadership-theories-lesson-quiz.html#lesson Cohen, W. M. and Levinthal, D. A. (1990).Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learning and Innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35: 128-152. Damanpour, F. (1991). Organizational Innovation: A Meta-analysis of Effects of Determinants and Moderators. Academy of Management Journal, 34: 555-590. Doyle, M. E., & Smith, M. K. (2001). Classical models of managerial leadership: Trait, behavioral, contingency and transformational theory. Retrieved from Infed Web site: http://www.infed.org/leadership/tradional_leadership.htm. Dyer, J. H., Gregersen, H. B., & Christensen, C. M. (2009, December). The innovator’s DNA. Harvard Business Review, 87(12), 60–67. Dyer, J. H., Gregersen, H. B., & Christensen, C. M. (2011). The innovator’s DNA: Mastering the five skills of disruptive innovators. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press. Elkins, T. and Keller, R. T. (2003). Leadership in Research and Development Organizations: A Literature Review and Conceptual Framework. Leadership Quarterly, 14: 587-606. Jung, D. I. (2001). Transformational and Transactional Leadership and Their Effects on Creativity in Groups. Creativity Research Journal, 13 (2): 185-195 Transformational model Retrieved from http://strategyofnarayan.blogspot.com/2013/04/assignment-of-week-23.html

The Military Draft Should Not Be Reinstated Essay

The Military Draft Should Not Be Reinstated - Essay Example The Military Draft Should Not Be Reinstated The draft ensured that these young men were enlisted in the military force. It was compulsory the young men to be in the military as the few in the military and the volunteers could not sum up to a number that would ensure the country’s safety. Refusal of anyone to be inducted to the military, would lead to severe consequences, like lack of jobs and funds for college. This way, most young people joined the military, trained and when wars came up, they went out to fight for their nation. Thus, the government ensured that they had a strong enough military for wars like the world war. The military draft today should not be upheld. It is a draft that was used a long time ago for reasons that were important to the state. However, today, retaining the military draft would lead to more negative effects than positive ones. The government has discussed the draft a few times in congress. Coming back to the draft would lead to losses like jeopardizing the futures of most young people; wars are less today and more funds would be used to ensure that the ones, who enrolled, were maintained. These are but a few reasons that would make the draft a heavy task. First, it is important to note that the military draft was helpful back then due to the reoccurrence of wars and because the military had few people. However, the military today has had quite a success. So many people have volunteered to join the military as an occupation. The number of people in the military force is not little. ... The military has enough people who are experienced and well trained and are ready to fight for the country in case of anything. The force already fully represents the nation well, thus retrying the draft would not be important. Secondly, the draft would require the government to spend so much, which is unnecessary. As said earlier, the draft required so many people to enroll to the military. This would lead to a huge number of young people who need to be maintained and trained in the military. So much money would have to be spent to maintain the number of young people who joined the force (Pickering 2). Also, the kind of training and the facilities required would be doubled, or even tripled to ensure each recruit was well equipped to join the military force. This is another main reason why taking on the military draft would incur a loss to the state. Thirdly, the draft, if picked up, would jeopardize the futures of so many young people in the country, from men to women. Each young pe rson has plans and dreams to reach for the futures. The country needs more doctors daily, lawyers, business men and women, among others. The young people aged eighteen to twenty five were able bodied and in school, studying to achieve their dreams and improve the economy of the country (Congressional Digest 83). Forcefully enrolling most of this young people to the military force meant that the country would lose the labor force for other many occupations. This scarcity would eventually jeopardize the economy of the state. Another reason why the draft would not be fit if replayed is that, it is seen as a panic move. The country, like every other country has a military force to ensure the security of all citizens is upheld. However, enrolling so many young people to the

How the epic poem Iliad influenced Alexander the Great Research Paper - 1

How the epic poem Iliad influenced Alexander the Great - Research Paper Example Alexander’s dream to conquer the world has its root in the very imaginary of world of the Iliad. To a great extent, Iliad’s world was a world of heroism for Alexander. Homer’s heroes -especially, Achilles- had influenced the young mind of Alexander in his youth. But this world also taught him morality and courage to a considerable extent. It was the courage of Achilles’ courage -to go against Agamemnon’s tyrannous, unreasonable and despotic behavior- that inspired Alexander to raise his voice often against his father’s royal policies. Though he inherited much of the war-tactics and the wisdom of fighting and winning a war from his father Philip of Macedon, textual evidences from the â€Å"Iliad† show that a significant part of Alexander’s war-tactics had been induced and modulated by the war-tactics of Homeric heroes. This paper will explore into how Alexander had been influenced by Homer’s epic poem ‘Iliad’. In this regard, Alexander’s real-life activities will be compared with the textual evidences in the poem. During the formative years of his early life Alexander had been greatly influenced by the â€Å"Iliad†. Since his time, he has turned into a legendary personality. He appears to one of the most influential historical personalities who tamed the world by their courage. But this legendary personality himself has been inspired tremendously by the Greek mythologies and legends. During the early years of his life, Alexander studied the ‘Iliad’. The courage and heroism of the Greek heroes in the story were greatly shaping the young mind of Alexander. Especially the Homeric hero Achilles attracted him so much that he decided to imitate him in his real life. Till his death, the Achillean motivation to fight in a war has haunted Alexander’s mind. This Achillean motivation is best described in the following speech of Achilles: â€Å"If I hold out here and I lay siege to Troy, / my journey

Work Force Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Work Force Diversity - Essay Example Workforce diversity can be defined as the workforce of an organization that is made up of people from different cultural and demographical backgrounds. Diversity can be also on the basis of human qualities. However from the perspective of an individual diversity can be in terms of ethnicity, race, gender, age, or anything related to physical abilities. Although diversity acts as a key competitive advantage to the organizations, sometimes it can act as a concern. For example diversity in the form of working generation is a matter of concern for many organizations. There are four generations that work side by side in an organization, and each group has some different expectations and diversified mindset. Therefore to create an environment where all the groups get fitted is certainly a challenge for the organizations. As human being enters the 21st century, diversity in workforce has become crucial in a business venture. In this age of information technology, the most valuable asset of the organization is its workforce. The increasing globalization has made people to interact more among themselves as well as from the people of different beliefs, locations and cultural backgrounds. People are no longer working in an inward-looking market, but they work in a global market place. There are competitions from almost every part of the world. Hence for this principal reason organizations need diversity in their workforce. It has also become a way to be more innovative and also open to amendments.

Was the US justified in using the Bomb against Japan Essay

Was the US justified in using the Bomb against Japan - Essay Example The bombing was necessary to prevent massive causalities on either side in the planned invasion since it precipitated the surrender. Japan’s plan was to inflict very heavy losses, which the war-weary Americans would not stand; neither would they negotiate for peace. Had the US continued with the plan to land on Kyushu, they would have suffered horrendous causalities. Pre-inventing causalities approximation anticipated the loss of between 100,000 to 1 million American soldiers, with 5 to 10 million Japanese civilians and military losing their lives ( Chappell 145). It has been estimated that between 250,000 to 400,000 Asians under Japanese occupation would have lost their lives for every month that the war went on. In this context, the fact remains that the atomic bombing against Nagasaki and Hiroshima resulted to the end of the World War II much sooner than any other alternative that could have been used and in so doing, millions of lives were saved. Given the reason that the Japanese had caused 17 million deaths, it is justifiable that the atomic bombing on Japan was to end the war. According to President Truman, an atomic bomb was to be used on Japan without a warning. In a radio broadcast following the atomic bombing on the two cities, President Truman announced that he realized the disastrous implication of the atomic bomb, which they had used against those who attacked Americans without caution, at Pearl Harbor. The bomb was to attack those who have beaten and starved and executed American war prisoners against those who deserted all the pretense of abiding by the international warfare law, and it was meant to shorten the misery of young Americans. The US was to continue using it until they totally destroy Japan’s power of making war. A decision of Japanese surrender was the only move that would have stopped them. The president was well aware of the savage way in which the Japanese waged war in

Video Production - The Importance of Documentaries Essay

Video Production - The Importance of Documentaries - Essay Example To take advantage of this broad scope for creativity offered by documentary films, the filmmakers should adopt a script-free approach. Documentaries such as Fahrenheit 911 and Bowling for Columbine, which have garnered much critical acclaim are good examples of this scrip-free approach. The filmmaker needs to possess an eye for spotting key moments in the film before, during and after the production of film content. In the words of a famous cameraperson, â€Å"working creatively and seizing the moment and turning the camera on when things are happening before the rehearsal are important†. To be successful in this approach a passionate approach to work, an elevated cause behind the production and a sense of intuition are all essential qualities in the filmmaker. In the case of Fahrenheit 911, its producer/director Michael Moore excels in all the above aspects (www.documentaryfilms.net). A central unifying concept is essential to organize disparate footages and to integrate the various points of view expressed in it. While interviews and images of talking heads are important elements, there are many nuances to them. For example, â€Å"Interviews are not enough. Interviews may help define the point of view, but they are usually a terribly cumbersome way to get the documentary idea across, because they dont show the topic; they show people talking about the topic. It takes pictures† (Barnouw, 121). The first good example of the utility value of still images in documentaries is The Civil War film made by Ken Burns. By clever maneuvering of camera across each photo, the director lets the viewers know that the rest of the film will revolve around still pictures. The time span of these visuals and the background music are also equally important to make the intended impact on the audience. In The Civil War sound track the rendition of the solitary violin â€Å"spea ks† for the

Total Quality Management College Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Total Quality Management College - Term Paper Example Marks & Spenser work in fashion industry, therefore, considering the fact that Fashion is one of the fastest changing trends in any society reflect the need for quality standards which should be largely driven by the new trends in fashion liked by the customers. Therefore the customer-driven quality system is at the heart of the company. This, however, is always achieved through effective coordination of sales departments of the company with the customers so that new trends are identified and converted into product ideas accordingly. The overall importance of quality for this company lies in the various elements. These elements include clear coordination between the suppliers, production; sales staff etc. this, therefore, has allowed the company to achieve continuous improvement. The company has a strong network of suppliers with which it has clear and strong relationships providing strong backup support in order to generate the quality desired by the customers of the company. It is also evident from the fact that the company has effectively diversified into many areas and departments which has allowed it to maintain the quality standards it generated. Our chosen company in the service sector is HSBC Bank. HSBC is claimed to be the world’s local bank. It has the presence in many countries of the world with head quarter at UKthe. The value of quality for this organization matters a lot for the organization. HSBC works in an industry which is largely undifferentiated therefore it needs to compete on elements which may not be considered as conventional in their true sense. Thus it has to bank on the quality of services it provides. Its quality services include facilitating the customers to bank through the internet so that they do not have to visit the branches. This facilitation along with other services such as quick and efficient processing of the customer requests, call center facilitation, cordial and efficient staff have made HSBC a leader in the industry.

Black Codes Essay Example for Free

Black Codes Essay ‘Black~Codes’ were legal statutes and constitutional amendments enacted by the ex~Confederate states following the Civil War that sought to restrict the liberties of newly freed sIaves, to ensure a supply of inexpensive agriculturaI Iabor; and maintain a white dominated hierarchy. However; the history of Black Codes did not begin wIth the coIIapse of the Confederacy. Prior to the Civil War, $tates in the south enacted Slave Codes to regulate the institution of slavery. Furthermore, northern, non~slave holding states enacted laws to limit the [emailprotected] political power and social mobility. For example~ in 1804, Ohio enacted Iaws prohibitin black people from immigrating into states. In 1813, the State of lllinois enacted a law banning free BIacks outright from immigrating into the $tate. Black Codes adopted after the Civil War borrowed elements from the antebellum slave laws and from the laws of the northern states used to regulate free blacks. Some Black Codes incorporated morality clauses based on antebellum slave laws into Back Code labor laws. For example, in Texas, a morality clause was used to make it crime for laborers to use offensive language in the presence of their employers, his agents, or his family members. Borrowing from the Ohio and Illinois codes, Arkansas enacted an ordinance banning free blacks from immigrating into the state. In the end, the Black Codes were largely extinguished when Radical Republican Reconstruction efforts began in 1866-67, and with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment and civil rights legislation. Though the statutory lives of the Black Codes were short-lived, they are significant in that they served as precursors to the Jim Crow laws and social segregation among whites and blacks. For example, Arkansas passed a law prohibiting black children from 1attending school with children. The Texas legislature enacted a law requiring railroad companies to set aside a passenger car for black passengers. While each ex-Confederate state enacted its own set of Black Codes, all of them shared certain features. First, they defined the term person of color. Second, they prevented blacks from voting, holding office, or serving on juries. Third, they prevented blacks from serving in state militias. Fourth, they mandated for poor, unemployed persons (usually blacks) be arrested for vagrancy or bound as apprentices. Fifth, they mandated and regulated labor contracts between whites and free blacks. Sixth, they prohibited interracial marriages between whites and blacks. All of the Black Codes defined what it meant to be a â€Å"person of color. † However, these definitions were far from consistent. The Virginia legislature decreed that any person with onefourth Negro blood in their veins was a person of color. Georgia set the limit at one-eighth. Still yet, the Tennessee legislature declared anyone having any Negro blood at all made an individual a person of color. The leaders of the ex-Confederacy made no qualms about their desire to keep blacks out of the political process. To this end, all of the ex-Confederate states prevented blacks from voting, holding political office, or serving in the state militias. This view had some measure of support in the North. In an article appearing in the New York Times, an author wrote, â€Å"The denial of suffrage to the freedmen, we believe, cannot be made a bar to admission of the Southern representatives, for the reason is that it is no real denial of justice. No man, white or black, has title to a civil power which he has not the intelligence to exercise. † The Black Codes also prohibited blacks from serving in state militias. A principle reasons for these laws was probably a concern for insurrections and armed violence. However, a 2corollary concern was that the presence of armed black soldiers encouraged undesirable attitudes in blacks. For example, in Florida, the state legislature drafted resolution requesting that black Union Army troops be withdrawn from their lands because their presence alarmed whites and encouraged insubordination among blacks. Florida also passed laws prohibiting blacks from carry fire-arms or weapons. If blacks wanted to own a gun, these laws often required blacks to obtain a license from the county judge and to have witnesses, usually white, vouch for their nonviolent temperament. The vagrancy statutes were particularly harsh on freed blacks. While these statutes did not specifically target blacks in their language, they were predominately applied to blacks because of their impoverished condition. In general, vagrancy statutes stipulated that any person a law enforcement officer or judge deemed to be unemployed and not owning property could be arrested and charged as a vagrant. It was easy to arrest blacks for violating vagrancy laws because the freed blacks lacked wealth and land owning to their previous condition of servitude, and to a lesser extent because the federal government reneged on its promise to deliver forty acres and a mule to 40,000 freed slaves. Once arrested and convicted of vagrancy, a person would be forced into conditions nearly identical to slavery. They were either hired out to private individuals or forced to work public projects. They were not paid for their labor. In Florida, disobedience, tardiness, or running away could be punished by imprisonment, standing in the pillory or stockade, or flogging. Punishment by flogging usually consisted of receiving 39 lashes, a number frequently used when flogging slaves. Apprentice statutes functioned along with vagrancy statutes to ensure a steady supply of inexpensive labor. Under apprentice laws, minors of poor parents, or parents deemed to be 3vagrants, could be taken as wards of the court and bound out to a master for varying lengths of time. Males were usually bound until the age of twenty-one, females until the age of eighteen. Apprentices frequently had no choice in the trade they would be required to learn, however, masters were required to teach the apprentice a trade, provide for the apprentice’s living expenses, and provide the apprentice with a basic elementary level education. Some states even required the master to provide the apprentice with a monetary gift when the apprenticeship expired. Apprentices who violated apprentice laws by running away being disobedient to their master could be imprisoned, flogged, or forced to pay damages. The regulation of labor contracts with blacks was another hallmark of the Black Codes. In article appearing in a popular magazine of the time, a Southern author wrote of black people, â€Å"We should be satisfied to compel them to engage in coarse, common manual labor, and to punish them for dereliction of duty or non fulfillment of their contracts with such severity, as to make them useful, productive laborers. † Under the Black Code labor regime, blacks were free to work for any one they chose, but they were required to sign contracts that bound them to the employer at least a year. Once the contract was signed, blacks could not get out of the contract unless a court first declared the master violated the contract first. This deprived blacks of the opportunity to accept better paying jobs if they arose, and insured landowners had a steady supply of cheap labor. Punishment for blacks who broke their labor contracts included payment of damages, imprisonment. In states like Florida, it also included standing in the stockade or floggings. In Florida, behavior that constituted a breach of the contract included laziness, failure to appear for work, using offensive language with the employer, or running away. Most of the slave codes also made it a criminal offense for anyone to entice or encourage a black laborer to break an existing labor contract. Criminal laws also played an important aspect in the Black Codes. To varying degrees, ex-Confederate states passed criminal laws that prohibited petty that blacks were more likely to commit due to their immediate condition. For example, the Louisiana Penal Codes specifically criminalized trespassing on plantations. Because free blacks often had no place to live other than on their previous master’s plantation, they were more likely to be arrested under these statutes. Penal Codes also specifically targeted blacks by inflicting harsher punishments for some crimes than whites convicted of the same crime. Unequal punishment was important for keeping blacks in a condition of servitude. For example, a North Carolina statute made it a capital offense for a black person to assault a white woman with intent to rape. Finally, the Black Codes uniformly prohibited interracial marriages between blacks and whites. For example, in Texas anti-interracial marriage laws called for the punishment of both spouses with a fine, imprisonment or both. It was a criminal offense, as it was in Georgia, for anyone to knowingly marry a white and black person. And frequently county clerks were required to record marriages of blacks and whites in separate registries. Conversely, the Black Codes also uniformly recognized black marriages and the legitimacy of children born to black parents. However, many Black Codes made it a criminal offense under adultery and fornication laws for blacks to live together without getting married or registering as a married couple with the county clerk. These statutes were frequently applied to blacks living in rural areas who were living together as result of their impoverished condition.

Globalization Literature

Globalization Literature AHONARUOGHO YEWANDE Globalization is an undeniable phenomenon, which is rather hard to put into words and as a result can be explained in various ways. Globalization which encompasses variant aspects of the modern world, bringing nations of the world closer into a single society through culture, economic transactions, politics, technology and social interactions; is making an ever changing world. GPF (online) [n.d] According to Beck (2000) [online] Globalization regardless of how it is individually interpreted gives the implication of the deterioration of a state’s sovereign poewer and the structures that guide the territory. â€Å"The world-wide interconnectedness between nation-states becomes supplemented by globalization as a process in which basic social arrangements (like power, culture, markets, politics, rights, values, norms, ideology, identity, citizenship, solidarity) become disembedded from their spatial context (mainly the nation-state) due to the acceleration, massification, flexibilisation, diffusion and expansion of transnational flows of people, products, finance, images and information† this states that due to the increased flexibility and ease of mobility of many factors in an economy that social arrangements have become disembedded from their nation states, all of which is known as globalisation. beerkens (2004) [online] â€Å"The characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new competitive environment that generates these processes, and the internationalizing of the state making states into agencies of the globalizing world.† This quote is informing about the concepts and characteristics that make up globalization focusing on the internationalization of many aspects of economies. Cox (1994) [online] Nations tend to come together in form of global unions, these unions are economic to some extent, and such exist within trade blocs. Trade bloc is an agreement which is formed between states, regions or countries in order to reduce the trade barriers which make trading inconvenient, amongst the regions involved. A well know example of this form is NAFTA, which is a trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Opponents to trade blocs view such agreements are harmful to free trade on a global level Investorwords (online) [n.d]. Trade blocs have rules that guide their interaction with nations within the economic union as well as those that are not members of the union. Manish (2012) [online] Trade blocs are of different varieties, requiring different levels of commitment and arrangements from the members of the union. To be of the view that globalization is purely an economic union would be false and incorrect as just trade blocs show globalization as six different forms of unions. Manish (2012) [online] Trade blocs have certain objectives goal which they aim to achieve, one of which is to remove the restrictions to trade among the members of the union, there by promoting free trade and faster movement of resources between members. BMS (2013) [online] Trade blocs aim to improve the social, economical, cultural and political relationship between its members through the integration of economies, social programs could encourage this promoting peace in the region. BMS (2013) [online] Trade blocs have the objective of achieving an increase in economic growth amongst its members. As a result in the reduction in trade barriers, it puts firms in a position to produce at lower prices, which would in turn increase demand and lead to a large scale of production. This can result in economic growth and attract investment. BMS (2013) [online] A Preferential Trade Areas is also a type of trade bloc, interconnecting the nations of the world on an economic level, this is the least committed to trade barrier reductions. In this union members lower but do not eliminate trade barriers amongst themselves and no set arrangement is agreed about their interactions with non- members. Manish (2012) [online] Free Trade Area is the next stage after, the Preferential Trade areas, all trade barriers are eliminated for members when relating with each other, so all the members are able to import and export goods and services amongst themselves. An example is the ‘North American free trade agreement’ of 1994 between the Canadians, Mexicans and the US; these members establish independent trade policies when relating with non members. Manish (2012) [online] another free trade area example is the European Free Trade Area. Shahid (2010) [online] Customs Union is the third trade bloc. The member states remove internal trade barriers as well as also agree to implement the same set of common policies when dealing with non member states. Customs union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan, which was initially created in 2010, is a custom union; other custom unions include European Union Custom Council, East African Community. Manish (2012) [online] The Common Market is a trade union where member’s internal trade barriers are removed, common policies/ barriers are implemented for dealing with trade involving outside parties and free movement of resources such as ‘labor’ exist. Examples of common market include â€Å"Mercosur (Southern Cone Market)†, East â€Å"African Common Market†, European Economic Area and â€Å"West African Common market†. Manish (2012) [online] An economic union is one of the trade blocs that exist between nations that further make the nations of the world more integrated and connected. It requires members to remove internal barriers and agree to use common barriers for externally, allowing free movement of resources and adopt a unified set of economic policies. The European Union is an example of such; with one currency they have adopted one monetary policy. Manish (2012) [online] An economic union such as the European Union speeds up the process of globalization, increasing trade amongst the members of the EU as well as increased labor and capital mobility such as migration of Poland citizens to the United Kingdom and Ireland. The EU has expanded its sphere of influence to over 20 countries, making for over 356 million in population. Pettinger (2008) [online] Other economic unions include CEMC (economic and monetary community of central America), OECS (organization of eastern Caribbean states), UEMAO (west African economic and monetary union).shahid (2010) [online] In addition to the integration of the nations belonging to the trade blocs it is also seen that globalization is further aided by trade blocs which make negotiations easier on a global level. An case relating to trading negotiations is, the European Union bargains as one singular bloc making it easier and faster to push through practices which increase free trade. Pettinger (2008) [online] Full Integration is the final stage, coming after economic union. The members become fully integrated; an example is the United States. Manish (2012) [online] When viewing the definition, principles and aims of both globalization and trade blocs, they complement each other, both resulting in interdependence and increase in trade; Wang (2010) [online]. As a result it is easy to assume that globalization is purely an economic union formed by trade blocs. However, it should be noted that trade blocs can be seen as a hindrance to globalization because it promotes regionalization and not global elimination of trade barriers, causing conflicting parties to fight for regional interest; thereby building trade barriers for the rest of the world and preventing the importation of goods from other countries; Wang (2010) [online].This contradicts with globalizations purpose of one world and interlinking of all nations and â€Å"free trade† amongst all; Wang (2010) [online]. For example, the EU’s CAP placed high tariffs on importation of food and the dumping of surplus food items onto world markets. Pettinger (2008) [online] Trade blocs especially at its most integrated economic level when a common currency is established and a common fiscal policy within the union exists among the members- economic union- it leads to reduction of the power and sovereignty of a national government over its own territory. Although the states can take independent decisions to influence the total demand, income allocation and the level of production of their economies through the use of simple fiscal policies unless common fiscal policy is implemented in the economic union. As a result monetary and fiscal policy integration is the basis for an economic union and the application deepens the integration of its members, making it a single economic union and removes all kinds of economic borders. Hashimov (2013) [online] Trade blocs provide a larger market for exportation of goods, this creates a forum for the global products which can be linked between nations of the world, and this creates the possibility for more revenue for nation states. Admin (2012) [online] Trade blocs due to the integration of markets leads to increase in competition and productivity on the part of the nations belonging to the same trade bloc, ensuring to produce quality goods while the consumers had increased choice and lower prices due to the size of the market and number of competitors. Admin (2012) [online] Trade blocs make for a higher and increased rate of investment due to the larger market available as market is expanded. Admin (2012) [online] Trade blocs however have the negative effect, for example they undermine the efforts of WTO (world trade organization) because there is a possibility that the whole world would become regionalized and that would prevent trade liberations due to the rules and norms associated with trade blocs. Trade blocs would deter the WTO goals and undermine international trade laws. Admin (2012) [online] Trade blocs have the negative effect to globalization of creating unfriendly political tension and â€Å"hindering diplomatic relations† between members of a trade bloc and non member through discriminatory policies. Admin (2012) [online] Other factors unrelated to the trade blocs are important and significant to globalization. The main contributing factors to globalization could be argued but these are some factors that are contributing: Improvement in technology which enable global transport and communication to be carried out much easier, which also helps reduce the barriers of distance. Pettinger (2008) [online] the level of improvement in technology of transport and communications has led to a reduction in the prices for transferring goods, service and factors of production as well as making it easier and cheaper to communicate economically useful knowledge and technology. Mussa(2000) [online] Information technology is a main contributor in the process of globalization in form of a catalyst, it increases the accessibility of information and economic potential. Enabling for efficiency in the economies of nations as political and commercial information can be transferred easily and at a fast rate. Information technology encourages the creative use of resources to promote and advertise new products and ideas across borders and cultures regardless of its geographical location. Technology is now the leading factor of the modern world creating employment, new ideas, and networking sites which enables global connection and communication.globalisation101 (n.d) [online] The growth of multinational companies. Pettinger (2008) [online] Globalization is also a political union of nations around the world, there are military-political blocs existing which is a union among states that have agreed to unite, cooperate and have unified actions and responses to address common political, economic and military tasks. Encyclopedia(1979) [online] an example of a political union is NATO. G. Bertucci and A. Alberti , wrote an article â€Å"Globalization and The Role of the State: Challenges and Perspectives†, in which it was stressed that economic globalization is in actuality as a result of political decisions made my nation. Stating that the expansion of international trade as well as finance and investment Transactions do not radically influence the role of nations while the high level of collaboration and joint active show states exercising their sovereign authority over their territories. Thus the authors are of the view that collaborative action instead of weakening their authority over their state reinforces their authority by creating a more secure global environment and greater possibility for exchanges in different areas. Hashimov (2013) [online] Globalization is also an economic union, it impacts employment, working conditions, income and social protection. Beyond the world of work, the social dimension encompasses security, culture and identity, inclusion or exclusion and the cohesiveness of families and communities. Todayszaman (2010) [online] In conclusion, globalization is an economic union of nations after all globalization is generally referred to as â€Å"economic globalization† as it brings nations of the world together and forms a more integrated and interdependent world. Economic union has led to increased flow of information and ideas, and had led to a change in the way nations interact amongst themselves. However it should be noted that economic unions can be seen as a hindrance to globalization itself which contradicts the view that globalization is an economic union and in addition globalization is also a political and social phenomenon not solely economical. Bibliography Electronic devices Admin (2012) [online], advantages and disadvantages of trading blocs, available at http://wisebrain.info/explain-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-joining-a-trading-bloc-international/, [accessed on the 3rd of February] Beck (2000) [online], what globalization represents, available at http://www.beerkens.info/files/globalisation.pdf, [accessed on the 1st of February] Beerkens (2004) [online], How globalization is affecting the world, available at http://www.beerkens.info/files/globalisation.pdf , [accessed on the 1st of February] BMS (2013) [online], objectives of trade blocs, available at http://www.bms.co.in/objectives-of-trading-blocs/, [accessed on the 3rd of February] Cox (1994) [online], understanding the chaacterisyics of globalization, available at http://www.beerkens.info/files/globalisation.pdf, [accessed on the 1st of February] Encyclopedia (1979) [online], definition of political blocs, available at http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Military+Bloc, [accessed on the 3rd of February] GPF (online) [n.d], globalization definition, available at http://www.globalpolicy.org/globalization/defining-globalization.html, [accessed on the 2nd of February] Hashimov (2013) [online], economic globalization and the role of nation-state in economy, available at http://www.academia.edu/3721679/ECONOMIC_GLOBALIZATION_AND_THE_ROLE_OF_NATION-STATE_IN_ECONOMY_THE_CASE_OF_EU, [accessed on the 2nd of February] Manish (2012) [online], compositions of trade blocs, available at http://financetrain.com/trading-blocs-common-markets-and-economic-unions/, [accessed on the 3rd of February] Mussa(2000) [online], driving factors of economic integration, available at http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2000/082500.htm, [accessed on the 2nd of February] Pettinger (2008) [online], The significance of economic blocs to globalization, available at http://www.economicshelp.org/blog/1019/economics/trading-blocks-and-globalisation/, [accessed on the 2nd of February] shahid (2010) [online], trading blocs and globalization, available at http://www.slideshare.net/Abdullah2012/globalization-trading-blocks, [accessed on 3rd of February[ Wang (2010) [online], relationship between regional trading blocs and globalization, available at http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijef/article/viewFile/4955/4119, [accessed on the 2nd of February] Todayszaman (2010) [online], social and cultural impact of globalization, available at http://www.todayszaman.com/columnists/dogu-ergil_204938-social-and-cultural-impacts-of-globalization.html, [accessed on the 3rd of February] 1

The Never Changing Society Essay -- essays research papers

Society is constantly changing but there are ideas that are embedded into society that still remain. The idea to survive and the idea to become better than your previous are still present. There exist one idea that correlates to a very strong impulse that controls our daily happening and our lives, the idea of selfishness. Everyone does something for something in return. In our present day society, selfishness is more evident when it comes to the matter of greed. Large corporations will put on different facades to attract different types of people to buy their product. This is core behind the idea of advertising. People change because society changes and therefore their interests change as well. To survive, companies need to appeal to the new interests by focusing their product to the new market of people. If you cannot appeal to the new interest your company will surely be doomed. Take for instance the car companies of the 1920’s. Ford first developed its Model-T car and had a monopoly over the car industry even if they all came in one color, black. Then, Chevrolet came out with its cars, which had different colors; Ford had then lost a large amount of its business to Chevrolet and was then no longer the leader in the car industry. Studebaker was another successful car company with decent cars and a fair amount of supporters but when the market changed and the company could not keep up with it, it failed and went out of business. In today’s present state, the car industry is mainly selling sport utility vehicles or SUV’s for short, but they are still selling the same thing, cars. At present, our economy is doing well so that is why many people are purchasing SUV’s. They are expensive and they waste a lot of gas. Not quite practical unless there is enough money to spend on it. Back in the 1980’s when the economy was not doing so well, smaller cars that used less gas and were cost cheaper sold a great deal more. The compact sedans of the 1980’s are now not in style anymore and not very many people are purchasing compacts and sports cars anymore either. Even though sports cars are flashy and expensive, it is more common than SUV’s were so people wanted something different. SUV’s are more high profile and they are like a trophy of how much money a person has. Nissan knew that sedans were not selling but it wanted to change the view and show everyone that th... ...and power and believe that the other cars are made for women. In the end, no matter what technique is used, it is the same idea just with a different image. Nissan is selling cars no matter how they advertise it just like Marlboro is selling cigarettes. The key is that companies need to change their strategies with the times. Time changes people and therefore if the companies can evolve with the times to fit the need of the people. This system is similar to that of the idea in nature that the fittest will survive. There are individuals who believe that only the strongest can survive but it is not true, something can be the strongest but if it is not fit to survive in the particular atmosphere then it will not survive. The same goes for the business. If the company lacks the skill to survive in the particular atmosphere then it will not, no matter how strong the company could have been, if it is not fit to perform in a particular environment, it will not. Advertising can only blur the image of the product so that it looks more appealing. No matt er how the intricate the illusion or how big the claims, the company is still selling a product that hopefully the consumer wants to buy.

Parliament works best when the government controls both houses. :: essays research papers

Even before federation, our country had adopted and used a Democratic system of government. Democracy has played a major role in our system of government as it has developed over the decades since it was brought to Australian shores by the English and the first democratic parliaments were created. Over time Democracy has grown stronger as this system became the foundation of our society. Democracy in our government must also have an efficient system for it to function properly otherwise the disagreements in parliament and different views on issues in Australia would tear our government apart. But how far can we go in our government before its Efficiency begins to affect our Democracy. A balance of Democracy vs. Efficiency has been engulfed in our Parliaments with Australia having a bicameral system. However it is very well possible for this to favour a more efficient system if the government manages gains control of both Houses. Democracy can be easily defined as a â€Å"rule of government by the people, and for the people†. Whilst incorporating the principles of majority rule, the protection of minority rights, equal participation, fair and frequent elections and the rule of law. This is done through elected representatives by the public. In our government we have political parties (interest groups) of people acting in politics to secure goals which they think are important and nearly always acting on behalf of other people whom they say think these goals are important too. The common complexity of this is that these goals often clash with other political party’s that have other issues and views. The biggest example of this is the clash between the Liberal Party and the Australian Labour Party. The goal of Democracy is to let the people have there say and for the representatives to decide on the best decision for the Commonwealth and the people. A definition of Efficiency can be described as productive whilst using the minimum waste or effort. In relation to politics, our system is an efficient and working government. Our Legislative sector of government has proven itself as a working system in our commonwealth and has had no major issues with its process. In most cases after elections the party with the majority in the lower house which has formed government usually does not have control of the upper house. The control usually hangs with the smaller parties and independents and they hold the balance of power which can decide the fate of bills that have been sent from the lower house.

Goethe’s Statement :: essays research papers

Goethe’s statement, â€Å"Treat people as if they were what they ought to be and you help then to become what they are capable of being† is commonly used in both a positive and negative form in today’s society. When a person looks the statement carefully over, they will find the meaning into what he is saying. From the Bible, the quote â€Å"Do unto others as you would have others do unto you† is very similar to Goethe’s statement. If a person acts in a certain way toward somebody, then the environment and the people in which that person is surrounded by affects his attitude directly. When a person believes somebody has the capability to be more than they are, and the person pushes that person to succeed, the person will live up to those standards. By having another source other than yourself see what you are capable of doing, it lets people see themselves from a different perspective. There are many examples in modern day society of Goethe’ s statement. A positive example of a modern day Goethe statement is in the Army. When a person thinks of the Army, the first thing that a person will think of is the quote â€Å"Be all that you can be.† The is an encouraging statement for people, and this will make people feel as if they can be part of something more helpful and proud. If a person exerts their whole self into becoming a soldier, and if other people tell them that they have the power to be more than just average, then, they put forth more effort, and feel better about themselves. Another positive example is in the acting business. While an actor is on stage saying his lines, he might meet the criticism of the director. The director of a play should know the ability of an actor, and by criticizing him; it is helping them become a better actor. There are also people with professions that, on a daily basis, they help people better themselves. These people are teachers and tutors. Teachers and students interact with each other more out of a day than most students interact with their parents. Teachers help us expand and open our mind by giving us skills throughout students’ early life to help students when they are older. By learning information from teachers, students become better people, in a couple of ways. Besides inquiring knowledge from their teachers, students learn to work with one another, open their mind to other peoples’ thoughts and ideas, respect one another, and learn different techniques for life’s issues.

Histogram

Aim: To study histogram, its processing and thresholding using histogram Theory: The histogram of an image with intensity levels in the range O to L-1, where L-1 is the last intensity value in an image(e. g. 255 in gray scale image) is a discrete function h(rk)=nk where rk is the kth intensity value and nk is the number of pixels in the image with intensity rk. It is common practice to normalize a histogram by dividing each of its components by the total number of pixels in the image, denoted by the product MN, where M and N are the row and column dimensions of the image. Thus normalized histogram is given by p(rk)=nk/M*N, for .P(rk) is nothing but probability of occurrence of intensity level rk in the image. The sum of all components of a normalized histogram is equal to 1 . Histogram processing: Global Processing: Histogram Equalization: Image enhancement techniques are used to improve an image, where â€Å"improve† is sometimes defined objectively (e. g. , increase the sign al-to-noise ratio), and sometimes subjectively (e. g. , make certain features easier to see by modifying the colors or intensities). Intensity adjustment is an image enhancement technique hat maps an image's intensity values to a new range.You can adjust the intensity values in an image using the imadJust function, where you specify the range of intensity values in the output image. this code increases the contrast in a low- contrast grayscale image by remapping the data values to fill the entire intensity range [0255 in case of grayscale image]. The process of adjusting intensity values can be done automatically by the histeq function. histeq performs histogram equalization, which involves transforming the intensity values so that the histogram of the output image approximately matches a specified histogram.By default, histeq tries to match a flat histogram with 64 bins, but you can specify a different histogram instead. In, general if r is original variable and s is transformed va riable, Let pr(r) and PS(s) denote PDFS of r and s and subscripts on p indictes that pr and ps are different functions in general. A fundamental result from basic probability theory is that if pr(r) and T(r) is known and T(r) is continuous and differential over the range of values of interest, then the PDF of the transformed variable s can be obtained using the simple formula Ps(s)=pr(r)mod(dr/ds).Local Processing: There are cases in which it is necessary to enhance details over small areas in an image. The solution is to devise transformation functions based on the intensity distributions in a neighborhood of every pixel in the image. The procedure is to define a neighborhood and move its center from pixel to pixel. At each location, the histogram of the points in the neighborhood is computed and either a histogram equalization or histogram specification transformation is obtained. This function is then used to map the intensity of the pixel centered in the neighborhood.The center ot the neighborh egion is procedure is repeated. Histogram Thresholding: then m to an ad Jacent pixel location and t Image segmentation can be done using histogram thresholding. It involves partitioning an image into regions that are similar according to a predefined criterion. Suppose that the gray-level histogram corresponds to an image, f(x,y), composed of dark objects in a light background, in such a way that object and background pixels have gray levels grouped into two dominant modes. One obvious way to extract the objects from the background is to select a threshold T that separates these modes.Then any point (x,y) for which ; T is called an object point, otherwise, the point is called a background point. If two dominant modes characterize the image histogram, it is called a bimodal histogram. Only one threshold is enough for partitioning the image. If an image is composed of two types of light objects on a dark background, three or more dominant modes characterize the image histogram. In such a case the histogram has to be partitioned by multiple thresholds. Multilevel thresholding classifies a point (x,y) as belonging to one object class and to the background if T and G2 consisting of pixels with values